Beyond Realism and Liberalism: Ressentiment as an Alternative Lens in Understanding the New Axis of Evil

Abstract

This article explores the concept of ressentiment as a powerful yet often overlooked phenomenon shaping both domestic and international political dynamics. Traditionally examined within the context of internal political struggle and legitimacy‑building, ressentiment also functions as a key driver of states’ foreign policy decisions and alliance formation. By invoking collective memories of past injustices, territorial losses, or imperial decline, political leaders construct powerful sentiments that justify aggressive and revisionist behaviour in global affairs. Through analysing a formation of alliance described as a ‘New Axis of Evil’ – an ideological coalition of the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, united not solely by strategic or economic interests but by shared grievances and anti‑Western narratives – this article demonstrates how ressentiment operates as both an ideological ‘glue’ and a foreign policy catalyst. It further highlights that while some leaders deliberately manipulate historical narratives, using them as a calculated political tool, others genuinely internalise them, often at the expense of pragmatic long‑term national interests. Ultimately, this paper concludes that ressentiment‑driven politics represent a pressing force in the reconfiguration of the contemporary international order.