Economic and Political Thought (online ISSN 2545-0964, ISSN 2081-5913) a peer-reviewed quarterly of the Faculty of Economics and Management of Lazarski University. Economic and Political Thought quarterly has been published since January 2010 and is a continuation of the peer-reviewed journal „Economic and Legal Thought”, which was published from 2003 until the end of 2009. Its genesis and evolution reflect the history of Lazarski University, one of the oldest non-public higher education institutions in Poland.
The Strategic Turn of the EU and the Ukrainian Impulse
The article examines the EU’s historical self‑identification and the obstacles it is faced with today, driving the Union into substantial internal revisionism and reconfiguration. It further explores how the EU perceives the accession of Ukraine: from the position of a moral community, a system under strain, or an evolving project. The article argues that accommodating Ukraine is likely to become a catalyst for the EU’s strategic transformation in a rapidly changing international order.
European Union, Ukraine, enlargement, EU integration, identity, normative power, strategic posture, Ukraine’s accession, US‑EU relations, international order
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The Communist Legacy as a Factor Shaping Belarusian Political Culture and National Identity
This research investigates how the post‑communist legacy has shaped political culture and national identity in Belarus. It examines the extent to which institutions, societal norms, and strategic paradigms of the Soviet era have influenced governance practices and attempts at nation‑building in Belarusian policies. Drawing on scholarly literature, policy analyses, and contemporary political developments, two interconnected dimensions are analysed: the persistence of authoritarianism and centralised state authority, as well as societal nostalgia. Ultimately, this paper concludes that post‑communist legacies serve as a powerful explanatory framework for Belarus’s domestic stagnation and dual national identity.
authoritarianism, Belarus, communist legacy, national identity, path‑dependence, political culture
Beyond Realism and Liberalism: Ressentiment as an Alternative Lens in Understanding the New Axis of Evil
This article explores the concept of ressentiment as a powerful yet often overlooked phenomenon shaping both domestic and international political dynamics. Traditionally examined within the context of internal political struggle and legitimacy‑building, ressentiment also functions as a key driver of states’ foreign policy decisions and alliance formation. By invoking collective memories of past injustices, territorial losses, or imperial decline, political leaders construct powerful sentiments that justify aggressive and revisionist behaviour in global affairs. Through analysing a formation of alliance described as a ‘New Axis of Evil’ – an ideological coalition of the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, united not solely by strategic or economic interests but by shared grievances and anti‑Western narratives – this article demonstrates how ressentiment operates as both an ideological ‘glue’ and a foreign policy catalyst. It further highlights that while some leaders deliberately manipulate historical narratives, using them as a calculated political tool, others genuinely internalise them, often at the expense of pragmatic long‑term national interests. Ultimately, this paper concludes that ressentiment‑driven politics represent a pressing force in the reconfiguration of the contemporary international order.
ressentiment, memory politics, New Axis of Evil, national identity, strategic alliances
The Future of Normative Power Europe: Scenarios for the Transformation of the EU’s International Identity
The European Union, described by numerous scholars as a normative power, has traditionally relied on multilateral dialogue and problem‑solving, as well as on strengthening and promoting international law and institutions. It faces an existential threat today, as the rules‑based international order is crumbling; its traditional reliance on normative power is insufficient in the face of both internal and external challenges such as migration, wars, populism, and opportunistic politics, which threaten its legitimacy, international agency, and even existence. As such, its international identity necessarily needs to evolve. This article possible trajectories of such evolution. Three scenarios for the future of the European Union are outlined and thoroughly analysed, describing prerequisites and consequences of their unfolding: the Hybrid Model, in which the EU evolves, retains its normative power, but adopts elements of hard power; the Zombie European Union scenario, which suggests that, through the rise of Eurosceptic forces and the lack of political will among pro‑EU politicians, the EU will implode and fade into obscurity; and the Coalition of the Willing, which describes a future where a few motivated Member States establish structures parallel to the European Union and band together to tackle defence issues.
European Union, normative power, scenario, rules‑based international order
Genealogy of European Union – Tandem of German and French Philosophy from Perpetual Peace Sketches of Kant and Rousseau
The subject of this article centres on the theme of philosophical discourse regarding a possible European Federation reflected in the Perpetual Peace sketches of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant and the French philosopher Jean‑Jacques Rousseau. Moving beyond the hypothetical possibilities and frameworks of eternal peace posed by Enlightenment theorists, the article develops into an analysis of the practical execution of these ideas, applying them to a supranational entity such as the European Union. Another crucial point of the work is attributed to the Franco‑German engine, owing to the fact that the philosophical discourse was initiated and concluded by prominent intellectuals from these two nations. The spirit of this intellectual tandem is present on various levels as an integral component of both domestic and foreign policy, as well as a primary contributor to the processes of European integration, particularly in translating the theoretical implications of the idea of eternal peace into reality. This article extracts the primary principles of the theoretical foundations of Perpetual Peace and assesses their correspondence and relevance to the nature of the European Union by defining the intellectual tandem as a framework for further methodological approach.
Perpetual Peace, European Federation, European Union, Franco‑German engine, state of nature, rule of law, democratic peace, moral maxims, CFSP, CSDP
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Between Moscow, Warsaw and Kiev. German Eastern Policy Before the Outbreak of the Full‑ Scale Russian War in Ukraine – Selected Aspects
The article analyses selected issues related to the eastern policy of the united Germany. The main caesuras of this policy over the years have been defined. The main thread concerns Germany’s actions that took place between the Russian attack on Ukraine in 2014 and the outbreak of a full‑scale war in February 2022. For m.in example, the discussion on sanctions against Russia or the controversial Nord Stream gas pipeline network was analysed. At the same time, the diverse opinions on Eastern policy that have appeared over the years in the German socio‑political discourse are presented.
Eastern Policy, Security Policy, German‑Russian Relations, German‑Ukrainian Relations, Russian War Against Ukraine
The Effect of the Israel–HAMAS War on Stock Returns: An Event Study Approach
This paper aims to analyse the reaction of oil‑related stock companies to the start of the Israel–HAMAS war. In particular, it examines the short‑term effects of the most significant events related to the conflict. The dataset incorporates 10 companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange over the course of two years, covering a period from January 2022 to December 2023. Daily data were preferred over weekly or monthly for their accuracy and larger sample size. The main research instrument is the widely used event study methodology (ESM), which operates under the assumption of the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH). The primary outcome is that cumulative abnormal return (CAR) shows a positive reaction to the news of the war the day after its occurrence. However, the effect was temporary, as prices returned to the initial level – and even lower – very quickly.
abnormal returns, cumulative abnormal returns, event study, Israel– HAMAS war
Exploring the Impact of Immigration Law on Economic Growth: Lessons from the US
Background: Immigration law plays a critical role in shaping the economic landscape of the United States. Policies that regulate the number of immigrants allowed for work or family reunification have significant implications for labour markets, productivity, and overall economic growth. These policies are often debated in terms of their long‑term effects on key economic indicators such as GDP per capita, poverty rates, and unemployment levels. Research purpose: This paper explores the impact of US immigration law on economic growth, focusing on policies that maintain annual limits on the number of immigrants permitted for work or family reunification. The goal is to assess the relationship between these immigration policies and various economic indicators, specifically examining how they contribute to economic dynamism and stability. Methods: The study employs a quantitative research methodology, utilising statistical data to analyse the correlation between immigration policies and key economic indicators. By assessing GDP per capita, poverty rates, and unemployment levels, the research identifies the effects of immigration laws on the US economy. Conclusions: The findings indicate that policies restricting the number of immigrants contribute positively to economic growth by ensuring a steady influx of skilled labour, which boosts productivity and innovation. Specifically, these policies support GDP per capita growth, helping to reduce poverty and unemployment rates. Immigrants also play a vital role in stimulating the high‑tech sector, as many possess advanced skills that align with industry demands. Additionally, immigrant entrepreneurship fosters new business creation, further contributing to job growth. Ultimately, the paper argues that well‑managed immigration policies are crucial for sustaining US economic health, promoting individual prosperity, and enhancing the country’s competitive edge in the global economy.
immigration policy, unemployment rates, wage dynamics
Challenges of Artificial Intelligence in Recruitment and Privacy Protection
This article discusses the evolution of artificial intelligence (AI) definitions, and the challenges associated with its application in recruitment, particularly in the context of protecting candidates’ privacy. A key issue is the imprecision of AI definitions, which affects the effectiveness of regulations and the establishment of ethical standards. Inaccurate definitions can lead to excessive or insufficient regulation, encompassing technologies unrelated to AI or overlooking advanced systems with high risks. Moreover, AI in recruitment raises new privacy concerns that go beyond traditional data protection. To address these challenges, the concept of hybrid privacy has been proposed, integrating various dimensions of privacy protection: informational, physical and virtual accessibility, and decision‑making. The evolution of AI definitions, from Turing’s test (1950) to contemporary approaches, illustrates how the understanding of this technology has changed and what implications this has for ethics and legal regulations. Current AI definitions and regulations require further refinement to keep pace with the dynamic development of technology. Inaccurate definitions lead to interpretive issues that hinder effective implementation of the law. The conclusions suggest the need for flexible regulations and the development of ethical standards that protect candidates’ privacy while also taking into account the interests of employers. A dynamic balance is crucial between rigid and flexible regulations that can adapt to the evolving nature of AI technology and its associated ethical challenges, such as balancing candidates’ privacy with employers’ interests.
artificial intelligence, algorithmic recruitment, prototypicality of AI definitions and regulations, hybrid privacy protection, informational privacy, accessibility, decision‑making privacy, AI ethics and law, AI decisions, algorithmic bias, irrational selection schemes
Knowledge Management in the Context of Crisis Prevention: The Case of the Tiger Brand – a Case Study
The aim of the article is to identify and assess the role of knowledge management at the Tiger brand in the context of crisis situations. The study employs a case study method, based on secondary data, analysis of marketing activities, and available press materials and industry reports. The theoretical section discusses key concepts of knowledge management, including various knowledge management models and their links to creating competitive advantage in the market. The analysis of the Tiger brand case demonstrates how the organization leverages market, consumer, and operational knowledge in innovation processes, communication, and crisis management. Particular attention is given to methods of knowledge transfer and processing within the organization, as well as the brand’s capacity for learning and adaptation in a dynamic market environment. The results indicate that effective knowledge management is a significant factor influencing the brand’s innovativeness, resilience, and competitive position. The conclusions presented may serve as a reference point for other FMCG industry entities interested in the strategic use of knowledge in brand development.
knowledge management, Tiger brand, crisis situation, image, SECI Model, Probst’s Knowledge Management Model, knowledge life cycle
Russia–Ukraine War and the European Union Sanction Policy
This chapter presents selected aspects of European Union’s sanction policy over Russias’s military aggression against Ukraine in 2014–2023. The authors elaborated shortly on the conflict background, position of the European Union towards Russian Federation’s activity and restrictive measures being introduced by the European Union since 2014. At the end of the chapter implications of sanctions over Russian economy were described.
sanctions, conflict, restrictive measures, Russia, Ukraine, agression, trade, economy
Reparation Bonds in the 21st Century: Lessons from the Dawes and Young Loans for the Germany–Poland and Ukraine–Russia Cases
This paper estimates the contemporary cost of sovereign reparation bonds by calibrating the historical spreads of the Dawes Loan (1924) and Young Loan (1930) to 2025 market conditions. A two‑step procedure is employed: first, historical spreads are adjusted for today’s risk‑free environment; second, they are modified for institutional quality—proxied by the World Bank’s Rule of Law index – and for the presence of value‑maintenance clauses. In two illustrative scenarios – a German sovereign issue funding reparations to Poland and a Ukrainian issue collateralised with frozen Russian assets – the equivalent 2025 spreads amount to roughly 107 basis points (bp) and 275 bp over the 10‑year EUR OIS curve, respectively. A Domar‑style sustainability test shows that the German bond remains fiscally neutral under moderate nominal growth, whereas the Ukrainian bond requires full multilateral supervision of an escrow account and sustained high GDP growth. Analysis confirm that tangible safeguards and international oversight can compress spreads (as historical evidence suggest by about 30 bp), while tokenisation mainly lowers post‑trade costs without eradicating political risk. The paper calls for an EU‑wide regulatory framework for reparation bonds – aligned with MiCA and the DLT Pilot Regime and suggests the need for further research (including panel regression and DSGE‑based research incorporating reparation‑debt components).
reparation bonds; sovereign debt; Dawes Loan; Young Loan; Rule of Law; value‑maintenance clause; escrow account; tokenisation; MiCA; DLT Pilot Regime; Domar condition
The Phenomenon of Energy Poverty in Central and Eastern European Countries in the Context of Sustainable Development
The article addresses the issue of energy poverty in Central and Eastern European countries in the context of sustainable development and the ongoing energy transition. It highlights the dynamic transformation of the power systems in these countries, which are striving to replace high-emission fossil fuels with low-emission energy sources, including renewables (RES). The article provides a detailed analysis of the relationship between the share of RES in the energy mix and the level and volatility of electricity prices, as well as its impact on the phenomenon of energy poverty.
energy poverty, energy transition, renewable energy sources, sustainable development
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One Issue Parties in Poland: A Comparative Analysis
The aim of this article is a comparative analysis of parties and single-purpose parties in Poland, with particular focus on Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland, the Palikot Movement, Kukiz’15 and Nowoczesna. The author wants to understand the factors of the electoral success of these groupings and the reasons for their decline despite an initial increase in popularity. The analysis covers the dynamics of organisational development and changes in support of these parties, their programmes, political strategies and the role of leaders. The researched article analyses the phenomenon of single-purpose parties in Poland, such as Samoobrona RP, Ruch Palikota, Kukiz’15 and Nowoczesna. The author examines why these parties, despite their initial success, do not last long on the political scene. Single issue parties are a common phenomenon in political systems, including Poland. Although short-lived, groupings such as the Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland and the Palikot Movement have had a significant impact on the political landscape. Studying these parties can help to understand the role of charismatic leaders and populism in society and politics.
political parties, comparative analysis, single purpose parties, single issue parties, successes and failures, electoral performance, role of leades
From Innovation to Technorivalization. The Dynamics of Technological Security: Technocolonialism, Technonationalism, Technological Hegemony, and Technological Protectionism
Technological security is one of the most significant challenges in the era of global competition and dynamic technological development. This article analyzes four key concepts shaping the contemporary technological and geopolitical landscape: techno- colonialism, techno-nationalism, technological hegemony, and technological protectionism. The aim is to systematize knowledge about these phenomena, highlighting their characteristics, objectives, and potential risks. The comparative analysis reveals similarities and differences among the discussed concepts, based on a review of scientific literature and existing data, such as reports from international organizations and strategic documents. The application of synthesis and deduction methods enabled the creation of a coherent analytical model, illustrating theoretical considerations with practical examples. The analysis concludes that these four concepts are interconnected and constitute elements of a broader state strategy in the context of global technological competition.
technological security, techno-colonialism, techno-nationalism, technological hegemony, technological protectionism
Migration and German Security: Analysis of Threats, Integration Challenges and Migration Management Strategies
The article examines the challenges and threats to Germany’s internal security related to migration and immigration, as well as the actions taken by the German government in response to these challenges. In recent years, Germany, one of the main destination countries for migrants from regions affected by conflicts and economic crises, has faced increasing challenges in the field of border protection, crisis management and social integration. The aim of the article is a multi‑aspect analysis of the issue of migration and immigration from a security perspective, taking into account both the socio‑economic and geopolitical aspects that contemporary Europe is facing. The work carried out a detailed analysis of scientific literature, government documents, public reports and statistical data to present a wide range of issues and challenges related to migration. The article discusses the main directions of German migration policy, preventive measures and integration strategies, as well as activities undertaken in the field of international cooperation and within the European Union. In addition, a case study method was used to illustrate specific situations that triggered a particular social and governmental response and to assess the effectiveness of policies implemented in Germany. The research results indicate that migration is a source of both economic opportunities and threats for Germany, which may manifest themselves in increased social tensions, the risk of radicalization and an increase in crime. Effective integration actions and cooperation at European level are key to minimizing the negative effects of migration and promoting social stability. At the end of the article, recommendations are presented that can support Germany in further developing its migration policy, which is a model for other countries, including Poland. Adapting these solutions can also bring significant benefits at the national level.
migration, internal security, Germany, migration policy, social integration, security threats, integration policy
Evolution of Real Estate Tax Rates for Business Activities in Poland in 2018–2024: Analysis of Trends and Conditions
The development of real estate rates is a process that changes both under the influence of top-down maximum rates and decisions of the municipal authorities. The article analyzes the evolution of real estate tax rates for business activities. The study covered all 2,477 communes in Poland in 2018–2024. Trends in real estate tax rates by buildings and land in particular years were analyzed. The article also included an analysis of tax rates in individual types of municipalities.
real estate tax, corporate taxation, municipal tax policy
The Role of International Trade in Economic Growth: Results from Bayesian Model Averaging of Dynamic Panels
This paper addresses issues connected with economic growth, how the theory on it has changed and also what its potential determinants are. In order to do so, the panel data was constructed for 129 countries with the time period of 1975-2015. In addition to this, the paper also accounts for the model uncertainty as well as reverse causality issues that may arise while dealing with such data. The methodology applied in the research consists of the Moral-Benito (2016) framework combined with the bayesian model averaging method (BMA). Out of the five variables, only one turned out to be fragile. The other four appeared to be robust with three of them at the most restrictive level. What is more, the paper also presents the potential reasoning behind obtained results and upholds the hypothesis that international trade has a positive impact on the economic growth.
function, regressors, likelihood, coefficient, variable, threshold, formula
The Federalisation of EU Member States: The Implications for Poland’s Economy and International Relations
This article aims to assess the potential impact of the envisaged European Union (EU) federalisation on Poland’s economy and its international relations. The authors explore Poland’s readiness for this change and employ various research methods, including a review of existing literature, analysis of documents and reports from the European Commission, as well as political discourse analysis. Additionally, the authors delve into Germany’s perspective on EU federalisation and its influencing factors, providing illustrative examples throughout. The current situation in the European Union requires a retrospective view of the important events to better understand Poland’s economic and political situation. The Maastricht Treaty from 1992 abandoned the concept of economic cooperation of the independent countries which was stated under The Treaty of Rome in 1957 and introduced the idea of unification of the countries in economic, political and cultural dimensions to put a political integration forward. The value of this article is the evaluation of the federalisation impact on Poland’s further economic and political development. In the opinion of some authors due to the cultural and social differences among the member states of the EU, the German concept of federalism cannot serve as the model for the EU but rather as cooperative federalism. The evaluation of approved 245 changes to the Treaties, in the opinion of the authors, is rather centralism than federalism, where the power and the strategic competence are shifted from the EU member states to the Executive (currently: the European Commission).
Federalisation, Poland, Germany, The European Government, Altiero Spinelli
Eastern Europe in the Face of Russia’s Geopolitical Revisionism
This article examines the political and geostrategic situation of selected Eastern European countries in the context of Russia’s growing neo‑imperial ambitions and the ongoing armed conflict in Ukraine. It focuses on key developments in 2021, including attempts to revive the Russia–Ukraine dialogue via the Normandy Format and the deepening dependence of Belarus on the Russian Federation. The author explores how Moscow’s actions—ranging from energy pressure to historical revisionism—serve to destabilize the region and undermine the Western‑oriented aspirations of post‑Soviet states. Particular attention is given to the role of the European Union and its Eastern policy, which faces serious challenges amid war, shifting regional security dynamics, and internal EU fragmentation. The central research question concerns whether the EU can maintain an assertive and coherent strategy toward Eastern Europe or whether we are heading toward another “reset” in relations with Russia. The article concludes by stressing the need for a profound rethinking of the EU’s approach toward its eastern neighbourhood and the importance of enhancing regional resilience against Russian influence.
Eastern Europe, Russia, Neo‑imperialism, Ukraine conflict, Belarus, EU foreign policy, Geopolitical resilience
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Europeanisation Revisited: Polish–German Relations in the New Era
Following Germany’s unification and the end of communism, Polish–German relations experienced remarkable improvement, transforming from a heavily guarded frontier into a practically invisible border. This transformation facilitated EU enlargement, increased trade, and enhanced people‑to‑people contact, with Polish services catering to German customers, and German supermarkets offering bilingual displays. Until 2015–2016, perceptions of this relationship consistently improved in both countries, with Poland’s former foreign minister Bronisław Geremek famously calling Polish–German reconciliation ‘a miracle’. However, this honeymoon period ended when the socially conservative and Eurosceptic Law and Justice (PiS) party won Poland’s 2015 elections, remaining in power for eight challenging years until losing their majority in October 2023. Unlike previous post‑1989 governments, PiS did not prioritise relations with Berlin, and actively worked to counter perceived Franco–German EU dominance. Key contentions included divergent approaches to Russia, migration, climate policies, and European integration. Historical tensions resurfaced as Warsaw threatened to sue Germany for wartime reparations, while Poland’s departure from liberal‑democratic principles – undermining its Constitutional Court and judicial independence – created domestic incompatibility with Germany’s fundamental values. Previously, scholars attributed progress in Polish–German relations to European integration’s consensus‑building impact, similar to Franco–West German relations during and after the Cold War. However, questions arose about whether this mitigating effect diminished as Poland achieved full EU membership and claimed stakeholder status in the integration process. The analysis argues that while Europeanisation’s importance for Poland’s domestic transition has weakened, it still plays a vital role in Warsaw Berlin relations. Despite the turbulent 2015–2023 period, Polish–German relations would have been far more problematic without that continues to encourage cooperation between both capitals.
europeanisation, Poland, Germany, security, economy, enlargement
Oil, Power, and Strategy: A Game Theory Analysis of Geopolitical Interactions in the Guiana Region
This paper analyses the ongoing tensions in the Guiana region of South America between Guyana and Venezuela over the Essequibo region. It utilises game theory to evaluate strategic decisions between Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil (a regional player), and the USA (a permanent global power). This is done to articulate the decision‑making processes in the conflict, which may involve both competition and cooperation. The main goal is to foster an understanding of how these interactions shape regional stability and the implications for global energy security. The paper applies the prisoner’s dilemma, stag hunt, and iterative game models to ascertain possible outcomes. The analysis suggests that cooperative efforts, particularly through mediation by Brazil, may lead to mutual gains. However, a lack of mutual trust between the two warring parties may reinforce mutual defection as a suboptimal yet stable outcome. The research seeks to provide insights for policymakers in the region who aim to navigate the security‑related strategies therein.
game theory, geopolitics, Guiana region, territorial dispute, energy security
Legal Conditions for Conducting Master of Business Administration (MBA) Postgraduate Studies in Poland
The Act of December 16, 2016, on the principles of state property management, which entered into force on January 1, 2017, set out the requirements for candidates for members of supervisory or management bodies of companies with State Treasury shareholding. One of the requirements for applying for candidacy is completion of a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree. Apart from the name itself, the legislator did not decide to specify any particular requirements for such postgraduate studies. In academic practice, these studies are conducted on the basis of general principles set out in the Act of July 20, 2018, on Higher Education and Science. The purpose of this article is to analyze selected regulations in order to determine the legal conditions applicable to the implementation of Master of Business Administration (hereinafter also referred to as MBA) postgraduate studies, as well as to propose de lege ferenda proposals in this regard.
Master of Business Administration, MBA, postgraduate studies, state property management
Reception of Tocqueville’s Theory of Democracy in The Fall of Western Civilization by Florian Znaniecki
The article analyzes the reception of Tocqueville’s theory of democracy in the essay The Fall of Western Civilization by Florian Znaniecki. Although this work is less known within the sociologist’s oeuvre, it contains important reflections on the crisis of values in modern democratic societies. The author points to the convergence between Tocqueville’s and Znaniecki’s views regarding the inevitability of egalitarianism and centralization in mass democracy, as well as the dangers posed by the dominance of materialism and the weakening of communal life. Znaniecki, combining philosophy and sociology, formulates a diagnosis of the West’s cultural decadence, warning of its consequences, visible for example in Bolshevism. The article also discusses Znaniecki’s references to French authors – Gobineau and de Custine – showing how his criticism of biological racism and racial imperialism contrasts with the views of these thinkers. In his portrayal of Bolshevism, Znaniecki echoes Custine’s depiction of Russia as a civilization alien to the West, while simultaneously warning that similarly destructive movements may arise in the democratic world if cultural foundations remain unprotected. Znaniecki also proposes a concept of the nation as a cultural community and race as a socio‑symbolic category, distinguishing himself from Gobineau’s racial essentialism. In the final section, the article compares the concept of civil society in Tocqueville and Znaniecki—the former sees associations as a guarantee of liberty, while the latter observes their erosion and calls for the renewal of the spiritual elite. The article demonstrates that Tocqueville’s critique of democracy finds a creative and timely continuation in Znaniecki’s work, serving as a warning against the disintegration of values and institutions in modern democracies.
Florian Znaniecki, Alexis de Tocqueville, mass democracy, civil society, social materialism, cultural values, Bolshevism, spiritual aristocracy, racism and nationalism, crisis of Western civilization
Liberty and Citizenry in the Polish‑ Lithuanian Commonwealth: Actonian Approach
In common understanding, the term ‘citizen’ refers to the citizenship of a given state and the right to vote, equal to that of other fellow citizens. This interpretation overlooks the most important aspect of citizenship, namely the real and consistent influence of citizens on the fate of their community. This dimension of citizenship is emphasised by Lord Acton, who highlights the participation of citizens in decision‑making, particularly at the local level, and rejects reducing it to the act of casting a vote at the ballot box, beyond which they remain indifferent and without any influence. The article briefly presents Acton’s understanding of citizenship and applies his approach to the nobles of the Polish‑Lithuanian Commonwealth. The second part of the article analyses the issue of ‘parliamentary reform’ after the wars with Muscovy and Sweden in the second half of the 17th century, pointing out that the primary responsibility for the failure of these efforts lay not with the nobles but with the royal couple and their ability to control the senate and the overwhelming majority in the house of deputies.
Civic liberty, citizenship, local self‑government, gentry democracy, constitutional law, English Constitutionalism, American regime, parliamentary reforms, political nation, Polish‑Lithuanian Commonwealth, Muscovy, Swedish Deluge
Psychological Aspects of Forced Migrations: The Case of Ukrainians Studying in Polish Schools
Since 2022, due to the war in Ukraine, Poland has transformed from a state accepting relatively few refugees to one of the world’s leading refugee‑receiving countries. This article presents the psychological aspects of forced migration. It focuses on Ukrainian children who, as a result of Russian aggression, began studying in Polish schools. It draws attention to challenges faced by children and their parents/guardians. In the context of the mental well‑being of children and youth from Ukraine, the article addresses the relationship between students and the issue of simultaneous participation in the Polish and Ukrainian education systems. Understanding the psychological determinants is crucial to supporting effective adaptation and integration.
refugees, Ukraine, Poland, students, psychological aspects
Macroeconomic Shocks and Institutional Reconfiguration of Economic Governance in the European Union
The article analyzes the impact of macroeconomic shocks on the institutional evolution of economic governance in the European Union between 2007 and 2022, with particular emphasis on the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Drawing on the paradigm of New Institutional Economics and theories of European integration, it demonstrates that the financial, sovereign debt, and pandemic crises acted as catalysts of functional drift, leading to a redistribution of competences and a shift in the institutional balance toward the supranational level. Particular attention is given to tensions arising from the asymmetry between a unified monetary policy and fragmented fiscal oversight, as well as limited coordination of macroeconomic policies. The analysis shows that institutional responses involved the development of extra‑treaty fiscal instruments and the expansion of the mandates of the European Commission and the European Central Bank, despite the absence of formal treaty reform. As a result, a hybrid model of economic governance has emerged, characterized by greater institutional flexibility and an increasing role for the supranational component. The article contributes to the study of the institutional dimension of EU economic integration by portraying economic governance as a domain of structural adaptation under repeated systemic shocks.
European Union, Euro Area, Economic and Monetary Union, Institutional Economics, Crisis, Economic Integration, Macroeconomic Shocks
Determinants of Leadership as Reflected in the Subject Literature and in the Context of Education Management in Poland
The purpose of this article is to present the results of a literature review within the scope of leadership and its determinants, and to introduce a tool for studying leadership in educational system establishments. The survey is a pilot project aiming to verify the assumptions concerning leadership in education and to validate the proposed research tool in terms of its coherence and the thematic scope of the issues addressed. Following the verification of the tool, the survey will be continued with further groups of entities and, based on the results, recommendations for the educational sector in Poland will be developed, including reference to educational systems in other countries. The study is of a testing nature and constitutes a starting point for research on statistically significant samples. The author is aware of the limitations of this study; however, the results indicate that the topic is important and warrants further research. The subject discussed is significant in the context of conscious and responsible management of organisation. The scope of the study is innovative, as no quantitative research on leadership models in education has been conducted to date. The article may serve as an inspiration and a guideline for conducting further research in this area.
leadership, leader, leadership determinants, education system in Poland, management in education
The Competitiveness of the Polish Economy in the Face of Climate Challenges and EU Regulations
The European Green Deal is a groundbreaking strategy of the European Union aimed at achieving climate neutrality by 2050 while maintaining economic competitiveness and social justice. The consistent implementation of the strategy aimed at achieving climate neutrality in Europe has brought about significant legislative, financial, and technological changes that are intended to accelerate the green transition, especially in countries such as Poland, where the challenges associated with high emissions are particularly significant. As a result, questions are increasingly being asked about whether Europe will be able to implement these solutions without losing its international competitive position. The article analyzes the current goals, progress, barriers, and financing options for the transition, with a particular focus on the possibility of using European funds to build economic competitiveness and mitigate the negative effects, including the social costs of the transition.
climate policy, climate neutrality, European Green Deal, climate change, energy transition, renewable energy sources, European Commission, European Union, European funds
The Effect of Oil Production on Various Macroeconomic Factors: The Case Study of the Economy of Kazakhstan
This thesis analyses the effect of oil prices on GDP, inflation, and the exchange rate in the case of the Republic of Kazakhstan, based on quarterly data from 2000 Q1 to 2022 Q4. To estimate to what extent oil prices affect the economic aggregators of Kazakhstan, the Vector Autoregression Model (VAR) is implemented. The findings disclose the presence of statistically significant Granger Cause running from oil prices to the exchange rate, inflation, and GDP. Based on the outcome of IRFs and VD, it has been found that there is a positive impact of oil prices on inflation and GDP; conversely, the effect between oil prices and the exchange rate has been found to be negative. Additionally, we can summarise that changes in oil prices greatly contribute to the fluctuations in GDP; however, the contribution of oil prices is fainter in terms of the exchange rate and inflation.
Oil prices, inflation, Kazakhstan, exchange rate, VAR model, SVAR model, Granger causality, oil-exporting economies